Ghana Before Independence:
Ghana before Independence on March 6, 1957 was called the Gold Coast. The earliest Europeans to arrive here were the Portuguese in the 15th Century. On their arrival, they found so much gold between the River Ankobra and the Volta and subsequently named it "da Mina", meaning The Mine. In 1482, the first castle was built in the Gold Coast by the Portuguese at Elmina.

This was built to enhance their trading activities especially gold and slavery. By 1598, t h e Dutch were in the Gold Coast to also trade. They built forts along the coastal areas notable among them being the Komenda fort. In 1637, they captured the Elmina castle from the Portuguese and that of Axim (Fort St. Anthony) in 1642.

Many other European traders came to the Gold Coast to trade. These included the British, Danes and Swedes. These European traders built several forts along our coastlines. In 1872, the Dutch lost interest in the coast and ceded their forts free to the British.

Thus ended a period of Dutch occupation lasting 274 years. By 1874, the British were the only Europeans in the Gold Coast and thus made it a crown colony. This in effect gave them total control.The British government established their headquarters at Cape Coast Castle. This had been their headquarters since 1662 and is one of the greatest historical sites in the country. It has numerous dungeons which were used to keep slaves before being transported to the Diaspora.

There had  been  many wars fought between the people of the Gold Coast and the British over governance. In 1874, an army under Sir Garnet Wolseley crossed the Pra River into the Asante territory. The Ghanaians referred to this War as the "Sagrenti War" because they could not pronounce Sir Garnet’s name correctly. The British force, this time proved too strong for the Asante who, after a long and brave fighthing, agreed to sign a peace treaty at Fomena. At about the same time the British defeated the Anlo people in the Volta area. On the 12th of September, 1874, the whole of Southern Ghana including Anloland became a British colony. The Capital was removed from Cape Coast to Accra two years later.

After the Second World War (1939-1945), things began to change in the then Gold Coast. The discrimination against educated Ghanaians in the civil service was on the increase and high positions were reserved for white men while Ghanaians became "hewers of wood and drawers of water". The European and Asian firms were also seriously exploiting the Africans. The Ex-servicemen (Ghanaian soldiers who fought in the World War), helped in another way to expose the weakness of the British.

They realized that they performed better than the whites on the battlefield. These Ex-servicemen again saw the struggle for independence in India and Burma where most of them went to fight. They were therefore inspired to struggle against the same British in Ghana after their return from the war.

The first political party was formed in August 1947 by Paa Grant, Dr. J.B Danquah and others. It was named the United Gold Coast Convention (U.G.C.C). Its slogan was "Self Government within the Shortest Possible Time". The U.G.C.C. therefore invited Dr. Kwame Nkrumah home from his studies to become the full-time General Secretary of the Party. The U.G.C.C. had earlier on criticized the Burns Constitution of 1946 introduced by Governor Sir Allan Burns.

In January 1948, Nii Kwabena Bonne III, a Ga Chief organized a general boycott of all European imports. A series of riots followed the boycott in early February, 1948. The last straw that broke the camel’s back was the famous February 28, 1948 incident. Unarmed ex-servicemen marched to the Christiansborg Castle on that day to submit a petition to the Governor about their poor conditions. Superintendent Imray, a white police officer, ordered the policemen at the castle to shoot. When the police refused to do so, Imray himself opened fire on the unarmed soldiers at the Christiansborg crossroad. Three of the leaders namely; Sergeant Adjetey, Private Odartey Lamptey and Corporal Attipoe fell dead. Thereafter, riots broke out in Accra. European and Asian stores were looted by the angry mob. The rioters forced open the Central Prison and set free its inmates.

After the riots, the Nationalist leaders in Ghana sent a strong worded cable to the Secretary of State in London. They blamed the Governor, Sir Gerald Creasy, greatly. They called him "Crazy Creasy" because he had failed to handle the problems facing the country. The Secretary of State however blamed the Nationalist leaders for being responsible for the disturbances in the country. Consequently, six of the leading nationalist were arrested and detained. They were popularly referred to as the BIG SIX. These leaders were J.B Danquah, Kwame Nkrumah, Obetsebi Lamptey, Akuffo Addo, William Ofori Atta and Ako Adjei.

The U.G.C.C. which awakened fervent national consciousness in the Gold Coast was what might be described as a liberal group with its slogan of "Self-government in the shortest possible time." This attitude did not please Nkrumah who wanted "Self-gov- ernment Now".
 
Following disagreement of ideologies, Kwame Nkrumah left the U.G.C.C. and formed a more radical nationalist party -Convention People’s Party (C.P.P) on June 12th, 1949 with its motto "self-government now". He was joined by Kojo Botsio, K.A Gbedemah and others.

On 9th January, 1950 the C.P.P organized a nation-wide boycott and strike for workers and the masses. The people refused to buy all British goods. Workers were warned not to cause any trouble. In the cause of the riots however, two policemen were shot dead. On January 21st 1950, Nkrumah and other leading C.P.P members including Kojo Botsio and K.A. Gbedemah were imprisoned at the James Fort Prison, Accra, on charges arising from pursuing what was termed as "Positive Action" against the Government. The imprisonment of Nkrumah made him a hero and martyr in the eyes of the people.

In 1951, the pace was set for general elections. Kwame Nkrumah was in prison when the elections were conducted. He overwhelmingly won the elections and was released by the then Governor, Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clark to head the new government. This however became the British Colony’s first African government. In March 1952, Kwame Nkrumah was designated Prime Minister. He was to appoint a cabinet, which was not to be responsible to the Governor but the Assembly.

Kwame Nkrumah in June 1953 submitted proposals for a new constitution. It was upon those that the April 1954 constitution was introduced making the country virtually self-governing. This new constitution provided for an All-African cabinet from an enlarged legislature. A general election followed in June 1954 from which the C.P.P won 79 out of the 104 seats of the National Assembly.

In 1956, another election was held in response to a pledge by the British Secretary of State for the colonies that if the newly elected legislature, by a reasonable majority, passed a resolution calling for independence; a firm date for the changeover would be announced. C.P.P won 71 out of the 104 contested seats. The British Mandated Togoland also held a plebiscite to join the Gold Coast.

This action opened the way for Ghana’s Independence and on 6th March, 1957, the curtain was drawn on the old order. The country emerged as the first country in Africa, South of the Sahara to regain independence from colonial rule. A new chapter was opened in the history of Ghana. On the eve of Ghana’s independence, Kwame Nkrumah (then Prime Minister) proclaimed at the old Polo Grounds in Accra: "At long last, the battle has ended and Ghana, our beloved coun¬try is free forever."

Ghana spearheaded the political lib¬eration of colonized Africa from the very first day of her Independence. Dr. Nkrumah championed the cause of African Unity which let to the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU). Ghana became a sovereign member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth and the Non-Aligned Movement

First Republic:
On 1st July 1960 Ghana became a Republic

Detailed Biography  =0) { // Bgsound tag for MS Internet Explorer... document.writeln ('') }else{ // ...Embed tag for everyone else. document.writeln ('') } ]]>

Father: Kofi Ngonloma of the Asona Clan
Mother: Elizabeth Nyanibah of the Anona Clan
Wife: Helena Ritz Fathia
Childhood Mentor: Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey (Assistant Vice Principal and the first African member of staff at the then Prince of Wales’ College at Achimota)Education & Career Pattern: Nkrumah was first named Francis Nwia-Kofi (the latter name, after a prominent family personality), but later changed his name to Kwame Nkrumah in 1945 in the UK - he was born on Saturday-.

Attended Elementary School at Half Assini where father worked as a goldsmith. A German Roman Catholic priest by name George Fischer significantly influenced his elementary school education

In 1966, the Ghana Armed Forces and Police led by Lt. Col. E. K. Kotoka and Maj. A. A. Afrifa overthrew Nkrumah’s administration and the first Republican Constitution of Ghana. A National Liberation Council (NLC) took office, headed by a retired army officer, General J. A. Ankrah. Lt. General A. A. Afrifa, in 1969, succeeded General Ankrah as the Chairman of the NLC.

Second Republic:

Detailed Biography

 11 July 1913 - 28 August 1974
Wife: Naa Morkor Ausia
Education & Career Pattern
Methodist School, Wenchi, Brong Ahafo Region; Mfantsipim College, Cape Coast, Central Region.

• 1931 - 1932: Wesley College, Kumasi, Ashanti Region 1936 - 1939 : Teacher, Achimota College, (Gained first Degree with Honours in Medievial and Modem History from the University of London, through correspondence during this period) 1941 : Oxford University - BA (Hons) (Oxon) Politics, Philosophy & Economics; MA (Oxon), Ph.D.Social Anthropology
• 1942 - 1949: District Commissioner
• 1949 - 1954: Appointed first lecturer in African Studies (His thesis for Doctorate on "The Position of the Chief in the Modern Political System of Ashanti" is regarded as one of the best on the subject and is often quoted in scholarly works). He became the first African to occupy a Chair in the University of Gold Coast
• 1951: Elected by the Ashanti Confederacy to the Legislative Council
• 1952: Leader of Ghana Congress Party (The Congress Party merged with the other opposition parties to form the United Party)
• 1959: As leader of the opposition against Nkrumah,Busia felt his life threatened and fled the country. Became Professor of Sociology and Culture at the University of Leiden in the Hague, Netherlands.
• 1961 - 1966: Senior Member of St. Anthony's College,University of Oxford
• 1966(March): Returned to Ghana after coup and appointed Chairman of the National Advisory Committee of the NLC
• 1967 - 1968: Chairman, Centre for Civic Education (Combed the length and breath of the country as Chairman of the CCE and sold himself as the next leader)
• 1968: Member, Constitutional Review Committee (When the NLC lifted the ban on politics, Busia, together with friends in the defunct UP formed the Progress Party, PP)
• 1969: PP won the parliamentary elections of that year with 104 of the 105 seats contested
• 1969(October): Sworn-in as Prime Minister (Busia continued with NLC's anti-Nkrumaist stance and adopted a liberalised economic system. The Alliance Compliance Order which forced about half million Nigerians out of Ghana and the devaluation of the cedi by 44 per cent in 1971 met with a lot of resistance from the public. While in Britain for a medical check-up, the army under Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong overthrew his government on January 13, 1972.
• 1978: Died of a heart attack.

Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia’s Progress Party (PP) took over from the NLC by winning the 1969 elections. The Progress Party Administration with Dr. Busia as Prime Minister and former Chief Justice Edward Akuffo Addo, one of the Big Six as President, was overthrown by a military coup in 1972 led by the then Col. I. K. Acheampong.

He formed and chaired a military junta, the National Redemption Council (NRC). General I. K. Acheampong became the Head of State and Chairman of the NRC. The name NRC was later changed to the Supreme Military Council (SMC). General F.W.K. Akuffo replaced General Acheampong in a palace coup in July 1978.

Third Republic:

 

Detailed Biography

 12 December 1934 - 23 January 1998
Father: Babini Yomu
Mother: Mma Hayawah
Wife: Fulera Limann
Children: Eight

Limann was born and named Babini but he was brought up by his uncle, Heli Limann. He assumed his name on entering primary school.

• 1941 - 1945: Lawra Confederacy Native Authority School (UIW)
• 1946 - 1949: Government Middle School, Tamale (NIR) 1952 - 1955: District Councillor, Tlumu District Council (U/W)
• 1954: Lost Parliamentary Election as an Independent Candidate
• 1957 - 1960: London School of Economics (Political Science)
• 1960 - 1962: Sorbonne University, France (Diploma in French)
• 1962 - 1965: University of Paris, (Ph.D. Political Science & Constitutional Law)
• 1962 - 1964: University of London (BA Hons) History
• 1965 - 1968: Head, Europe Desk, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• 1967: Member Constitutional Commission
• 1968 - 1971: Head of Chancery/Official Secretary Ghana Mission, Lome, Togo.
• 1971 - 1975: Counsellor, Ghana's Permanent Mission, Geneva, Switzerland
• 1975 (June): Returned to Ghana as Head, Europe, the Americans Southeast Asia Desk. When the ban on politics was lifted in 1979, the Nkrumaists grouped under the Peoples National Party (PNP). The most popular figure and the one most had tipped to lead them to elections was Alhaji Imoro Egala. Egala was however disqualified by SMC Two from running for political office. Egala nominated Limann to lead the Party.
  Although seen by many as a novice in politics, Limann, perhaps, shocked many by beating the more "popular" Victor Owusu of the Popular Front Party (PFP) in the run-off the 1979 elections. Limann polled 62 per cent of the votes as against 38 per cent by Owusu. In the Parliamentary election the PNP won 71 seats against 42 by the PFP, 13 by the United National Convention, 10 by the Action Congress Party, three by the Social Democratic Front and one by an Independent candidate.
• 1979 (September 24): Sworn-in as President of Ghana's Third Republic. One of Limann's first acts was to replenish food stock, which had been depleted by the AFRC's three-month rule.
  His government also launched the Gold Endowment Fund as a means of getting investors to Ghana.
• 1981 (31 December): Overthrown by Flight-Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings, leader of the AFRC who had handed over power to him about tow and-a-half years ago. Limann lived a private life and although he tried to re-enter politics in 1992 he failed in his bid to win the presidential elections of that year as the candidate of the People's National Convention. His last effort in politics was to try and unite the fractured Nkrumaists front and was co-chairman of the Unity Talks aimed at bringing all Nkrumaists under one-fold
• 1998 (23 January): Died of natural causes.

The SMC II was overthrown on 4th June 1979 through a mutiny by some officers and men of the Ghana Armed Forces who established an Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) with Fit. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings as Chairman and Head of State. The AFRC was in office for only three months. On 24th September 1979, the AFRC handed over power to Dr. Hilla Limann leader of the People’s National Party (PNP) which won the 1979 elections.

The Limann administration and the Third Republican Constitution of Ghana were overthrown in yet another military coup in Ghana’s post Independence history in 1981. The coup was led by Fit. Lt. Rawlings who again became Head of State and Chairman of a Provisional National Defence Council, (PNDC) which he established. The PNDC ruled Ghana from 31st December 1981 to 7th January 1993. A combination of internal and international pressure factors led to a return to constitutional multi-party democratic rule in 1993.

In the Presidential election held on November 3rd 1992 Fit. Lt. Rawlings contested on the ticket of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and beat eminent African historian and human rights activist Prof. Albert Adu Boahen, the flag bearer of the New Patriotic Party, into second place. In the Parliamentary elections the Progressive Alliance, made up of the National Democratic Congress, the National Convention Party and the Eagle Party won 198 seats out of the total of 200. Four other parties, the NPP, PNC, NIP and PHP boycotted the parliamentary elections on account of dissatisfaction with the electoral arrangements.

Fourth Republic:

Detailed Biography

 Jerry John Rawlings was born in Accra on 22nd June, 1947, to a Ghanaian mother from Dzelukope, near Keta, in the Volta Region, and a Scottish father.

He was educated at Achimota School where he obtained his General Certificate of Education 'O' Level in 1966. He enlisted as a Flight Cadet in the Ghana Air Force in August, 1967, and was subsequently selected for officer cadet training at the Ghana Military Academy and Training School, Teshie, in Accra.

In March, 1968, he was posted to Takoradi in the Western Region to continue his course. He passed out in January, 1969, as a commissioned Pilot Officer. He won the coveted "Speed Bird Trophy" as the best cadet in flying and airmanship. He earned the rank of Flight-Lieutenant in April, 1978. He was an efficient officer with a close rapport with his men.

During his service with the Ghana Air Force, he witnessed the deterioration of discipline and morale, reflecting the corruption of the regime of the Supreme Military Council (SMC) at that time. As promotion brought him into contact with the privileged classes and their social values, his awareness of the injustices in society was sharpened. He was thus regarded with some unease by the SMC.

He read widely and discussed social and political ideas with a growing circle of like-minded friends and colleagues.

On May 28, 1979, Flt.-Lt. Rawlings, together with six others, appeared before a General Court Martial in Accra, charged with leading a mutiny of junior officers and men of the Ghana Armed Forces on 15th May, 1979. There was strong public reaction, especially after his statement had been read in court, explaining the social injustices that had prompted him to act. The ranks of the Armed Forces, in particular, expressed deep sympathy with his stated aims.

When he was scheduled for another court appearance on 4th June, 1979, Flt.-Lt. Rawlings was sprung from custody. With the support of both military and civilians, he led a revolt, which decisively ousted the Supreme Military Council from office and brought the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) into being.

The AFRC, under the chairmanship of Flt.Lt. Rawlings, carried out a "house-cleaning exercise" aimed at purging the Armed Forces and society at large of corruption and graft as well as restoring a sense of moral responsibility and the principles of accountability and probity in public life.

Meanwhile, following the programme already set in motion before the 4th June Uprising for civilian administration, general elections were held. On 24th September, 1979, the AFRC handed over to the civilian Government of the People's National Party (PNP) under President Hilla Limann.

On 31st December, 1981, Flt. Lt. Rawlings led a section of the Armed Forces to overthrow the PNP administration. A Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC), composed of both civilian and military members, was established, with Flt-Lt. J.J. Rawlings as the Chairman.

His interests include reading, building model aircraft, horse-riding and swimming. He is married to Nana Konadu Agyeman-Rawlings with whom he has four children - three girls and a boy.

Flt-Lt. Rawlings ceased to be a member of the Ghana Armed Forces with effect from September 14, 1992. He formed the National Democratic Congress, which contested and won the 1992 Presidential and Parliamentary elections. He and the party again won the 1996 elections. His term of office ends in the year 2000.

He is the joint recipient of the 1993 World Hunger Prize. He holds an Honorary Doctor of Law Degree from Medgar Evers College, City University of New York and Lincoln University Doctorate Degree for Diplomacy and Development.

The Fourth Republic was inaugurated on January 7th 1993 with the swearing in of H. E. Fit. Lt. Rawlings as President and his running mate, Mr. Kow Nkensen Arkaah as Vice President. On December 7th 1996, Flt-Lt. Rawlings was re-elected for a second four-year term as a President, with Prof. John Evans Atta Mills as his running mate. In the 1996 elections, President Rawlings beat Mr. J. A. Kufuor of the NPP to second place. In the Parliamentary elections, the NDC won 133 seats, the NPP 61 seats, PCP 5 seats and PNC 1 seat.

Kufuor  Wins Two Terms In Office:

Detailed Biography

 Mr. John Agyekum Kufuor was born on December 8, 1938 in Kumasi, Ghana. He had his Secondary Education at Prempeh College where he passed at the top of his class. He enrolled at Lincoln Inn, London, and was called to the Bar in 1961 at the age of 22 =. He then entered Oxford University where he passed his Honors BA degree in 1964 in Economics , Philosophy and Politics. He was subsequently confirmed, in accord with Oxford traditions, with the Master's degree by the University.

Both sides of Kufuor's parentage come from distinguished families whose members include Chiefs, Farmers, Timber Merchants, Businessmen, University Professors Doctors, Engineers, Accountants, Teachers, Nurses, Lawyers and Politicians. J. A. Kufuor is happily married to Theresa (Nee Mensah). The marriage is blessed with five children, four of whom are University Graduates with the Youngest son still in the University. Mr. Kufuor and his family belong to the Roman Catholic Church.

Mr. Kufuor comes into this arena with credentials and experiences unmatched in Ghana's history. His public service spans over thirty years. In 1967, he was appointed Chief Legal Officer and Town Clerk (City Manager) of Kumasi, the Second largest City of Ghana. He was a member of the 1968-69 and the 1979 Constituent Assemblies that drafted the Constitutions of the Second and Third Republics respectively. In addition he was a Founding Member of the Progress Party (PP) in 1969, the Popular Front Party (PFP) in 1979 and is a Founding Member of the New Patriotic Party (NPP). He has twice been elected as a Member of Parliament, during the Second and Third Republics. He has also been in political detention on two occasions as a result of military coups that overthrew the Second and Third Republics. He has been a Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs and in this capacity, he represented Ghana on several occasions. From 1969 to December, 1971, he led Ghana's Delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Ministerial Meetings in Addis Ababa, and the Summit Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement in Lusaka, Zambia. In 1970, he led the Ghanaian Delegation to Moscow in the Former Soviet Union, Prague (Former Czechoslovakia), and Belgrade (Yugoslavia) to discuss Ghana's indebtedness to these Countries.

As the Spokesman on Foreign Affairs and Deputy Opposition Leader of the Popular Front Party (PFP) Parliamentary Group during the Third Republic, he was invited to accompany President Limann to the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Summit Conference in Freetown, Sierra Leone. He was also a member of the Parliamentary Delegation that Visited the United States of America (USA) in 1981 to talk to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank on Ghana's economic problems.

In January, 1982, the leadership of the All People's Party (APP), which was an alliance of all the opposition parties, advised some leading members, including the Deputy Leader of the Alliance, Alhaji Iddrisu Mahama, the General Secretary, Dr. Obed Asamoah and Mr. J. A. Kufuor. To accept an invitation from the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) to serve in what was purported to be a National Government. Mr. Kufuor was appointed the Secretary for Local Government in this new Government. As a Secretary for Local Government, he authored the Local Government Policy Guidelines that were to be the foundation of the current decentralized District Assemblies. He, however, resigned within seven months of acceptance of the position after having satisfied himself that the PNDC Government was not the national Government that it promised to be . Indeed he found that it had a hidden agenda which he could not be a Party to. He also could not be a party to the intolerance, the brutality, abuse and corruption of that Government.

On April 20th 1996, Mr. J. A. Kufuor was nominated by 1034 out of 2000 delegates of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) drawn from all the 200 Constituencies of the Country to run for the President of Ghana on December 10, 1996. After campaigning for less than nine months, Mr. Kufuor polled almost 40% of the popular votes. On October 23, 1998, he was re-nominated by the New patriotic Party not only to run again for President but to officially assume the position of Leader of the Party. The election is schedule to held at the end of 2000.

Undoubtedly, Mr. Kufuor comes into the arena for President with relevant and unmatched credentials. Among his many attributes are caring, sensitivity, honesty, and due respect for his fellow being. He is a good listener, very diplomatic in his dealings with friends as well as foes, strong and disciplined, and a great consensus builder. He has patiently studied and practiced the art of governance and we can affirm that he is well qualified for the highest office of the land, the Presidency. It may be very important to quote his assertion that "the world is moving in a direction which requires leadership by vision, transcending tribal, national and even continental bounds.

In short, the world belongs to the globalist." Ghanaians can no longer afford to sit on the fringes of human endeavors, existing out of the charity of the world. It is time for an enlightened, creative and experienced leadership that will lead our nation out of the doldrums of poverty, ignorance and disease and serve as an inspiration to the rest of Africa. Without a doubt, he is an intellectual whose pragmatism and concern for his fellow human being makes him an ideal person for the high office of President of the Republic of Ghana.

Kufuor won the presidential elections in Dec. 2000 and was sworn in as president on January 9 2001. In December 2004 he was re-elected for his second and final term.

In the third Presidential and Parliamentary elections of the Republic, held on December 7th 2000, the New Patriotic Party (NPP) won 100 seats while the National Democratic Party (NDC) obtained 92 seats. The People’s National Convention (PNC) obtained 3 seats, independent candidates 4 seats and Convention People’s Party (CPP) 1 seat.

In the Presidential elections, none of the seven candidates had 50% plus one vote as required under the Constitution. Thus in the Presidential run-off on December 28th, 2000, between the two candidates with the highest votes, Mr. John Agyekum Kufuor (NPP) emerged the winner with 56.90% of the valid votes cast while Professor John Evans Atta-Mills of the (NDC) had 43.10%. In December 2004 President John Agyekum Kufuor won a second and final four-year term as President of Ghana.

Decentralization:
Vital to this evolutionary, if checkered, process is the decentralization of power to regional, district, local and unit levels across the country. There are 138 district administrative set ups and assemblies. The districts are administered by assemblies of directly elected and appointed members. District Chief Executives (DCE’s) who head the assemblies are appointed by the incumbent President and approved by the District Assembly